Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), Job Ben Solomon, Ayyub ibn Sulayman
Professor Alain George's analysis of the sole surviving copy said to be written from memory by Job Ben Solomon of the Quran , also romanized Qur'an or Koran, the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: سور suwar, sing.: سورة sūrah), which consist of verses (pl.: آيات ʾāyāt, sing.: آية ʾāyah, cons.: ʾāyat). In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has significantly influenced the Arabic language.
"This manuscript is a unique document about the history of the European slave trade in West Africa and of Islam in the United States, and no less importantly, it stands out as one of the oldest preserved African Qur’ans. Its background is also deeply personal. It was penned by Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (ca. 1702-73), who was known in England as Job, son of Solomon, or Sol(l)iman, and called himself Ayyub ibn Sulayman in the present volume – all of these being renditions of the same name. Diallo belonged to a Fulani (also Fula, Fr. peul) family of imams (Muslim prayer leaders) from Bundu on the upper Gambia river, in modern Senegal. In 1730, his father sent him down the Gambia to sell two slaves and purchase paper. Diallo failed to agree on a price with an English shipmaster and went to find a buyer inland. On his way back, he was captured by a rival tribe and ironically purchased by the same shipmaster with whom he had negotiated earlier, Captain Pyke. Enslaved in Maryland A month later, Diallo landed in Maryland where he was sold to the tobacco plantation of one Mr. Tolsey. There he worked in the fields before being assigned the less taxing job of cattle herding. According to an account published three years later, in 1734, by Thomas Bluett, Diallo, unsettled by his inability to practice his faith, escaped in 1731, but he was caught soon after and imprisoned in Pennsylvania. It is then that he became acquainted with Bluett, a local British judge, who was impressed by his dignified manner, piety and literacy in Arabic. He was sent back to the Tolsey estate, where he received a more favourable treatment, notably with regard to the performance of daily prayers. Diallo was also allowed to write a letter in which he narrated his misadventures to his father, asking him for help. While in transit in England, the document was read by the military commander, Member of Parliament and philanthropist James Oglethorpe (1696-1785), who decided to purchase him from the owner of the ship, William Hunt. The letter was translated for Oglethorpe at Oxford, possibly by John Gagnier (d. 1740), a professor of Arabic who had overseen a few years earlier the production of a book entitled Petra scandali for Athanasius Dabbas, the founder of a shortlived but influential Arabic printing press at Aleppo. An offshoot of the latter institution, the Catholic press at Choueir (Lebanon), is discussed further below (cat. 65 and 66). These links, direct and indirect, between Christians and Muslims in Africa, America, Europe and the Levant reflect the breadth and complexity reached by social networks in the early modern era. In English High Society In April 1733, Diallo reached England accompanied by Bluett. He became acquainted with English aristocrats, particularly the famed naturalist Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose bequest would form the basis of the British Museum, founded in 1753, and the Duke of Montagu, to whom Bluett’s account was dedicated. Diallo was freed by a public subscription to which several members of these circles contributed, and became something of a celebrity in English high society, to such an extent that he was introduced to King George II (r. 1727-60) and to Queen Catherine, who offered him a gold watch. In July 1734, he finally returned to his country, and went on to maintain trading relations with the British. The short account of his life inserted at the beginning of the present manuscript (see below) states that “his Gratitude was to be seen in his letters sent back to his benefactors here & the Language of affection in which he speaks of the English nation.” Diallo’s extraordinary fate appears to have owed much to the impression made by his noble appearance, literacy, piety and moderation. As Bluett wrote about their first encounter in America, “by his affable Carriage, and the easy Composure of his Countenance, we could perceive he was no common Slave”; and elsewhere: His natural Parts were remarkably good; and I believe most of the Gentlemen that conversed with him frequently, will remember many Instances of his Ingenuity. On all Occasions he discovered a solid judgment, a ready Memory, and a clear Head. So popular was his story, as published by Bluett, that it was translated into German in 1748. It contributed to establishing the moral character of Africans in British society and, at the end of the century, to the build-up of arguments for the abolition of slavery. His brief passage through the United States also offers a rare glimpse at the life of African Muslim slaves, who were numerous but whose narratives have largely fallen into oblivion. Testimony of the Present Volume We know from Bluett’s account that Diallo wrote three Qur’ans while in England. As he remarks: His Memory was extraordinary; for when he was fifteen Years old he could say the whole Alcoran by heart, and while he was here in England he wrote three Copies of it without the Assistance of any other Copy, and without so much as looking to one of those three when he wrote the others. The present manuscript is the only one to have emerged into public view so far, and it is a valuable counterpart to the stories narrated by others about Diallo. It begins (f. 4r) with an Arabic text that can be transcribed and tentatively translated as follows: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم قل الله على شيد محمد القران وهو شرعة الاسلامية محمد ابن عبد الله اسمه تكتب القرءان الله ايوب بن سليمن اسمه بلاد اقلل لندل بلاد انشارى تمت كتٰب يوم الخميس ست وعشر شهر عاكث مائة والف وخمس وثلاثون سنين اخر محمد ايوب بن سليمن بلاد بند اسمه خوه حمد حمد بن سليمن احمد بن بوب اسمه المراتين فلد بن صديق ام بن بوب كيت In the Name of God, the Clement, the Merciful, say [the name of] God upon master Muhammad (shayyid muḥammad), THE QUR’AN WHICH IS the Islamic law of Muhammad son of ʿAbd Allah His name: she writes the Qur’an, God, Ayyub ibn Sulayman. Its name: the country of Aqlal Lindal (England London?), country of the Christians (anshārā). Book was completed on Thursday the sixteenth of the month of ʿakith 1135 ,the end of Muhammad. Ayyub ibn Sulayman, country of Bundu. His name: his brother Ḥamad, Ḥamad (sic) ibn Sulayman Ahmad ibn Bubu. His name: the two women (?) Fulad (?) ibn Ṣiddiq the mother of Ibn Bubu Keita (?). This tentative rendition shows that Diallo’s written Arabic was far from fluent. When composing sentences of his own, he used a grammar that is not Arabic: the word ismuhu (“his name” or “its name”) introduces new sentences; the verb kataba (“to write”) is in the feminine instead of the masculine; and there is often no proper verb at all in the sentence. Two terms, shayyid and anshara, seem to reflect Senegalese pronunciation of the letter sin as shin, and thus to denote respectively the Arabic sayyid (“master”) and al-naṣara (“the Christians”). The month of ʿakith, which occurs again with a different spelling in the colophon (see below), is otherwise unknown. The Hijri date given here, 1135/1722-3, seems incorrect, unless the expression akhir muḥammad (lit. “the end of Muhammad”) were taken to mean “the death of Muhammad.” Since the Prophet died in 10/632, this would make the intended date 1145/1732-3. Such a calendar, however, would be virtually unheard of in Islamic history. The date 1733 is stated twice in the Gregorian era at the end of the manuscript (see below). After this title page, and just before the Qur’anic text, Diallo has written and fully vocalised two lines of Arabic script on a blank page (f. 5r). The text, which is perplexing at first, turns out to be a transliteration of the names of the Twelve Apostles in English pronunciation: بِيتَ جِيمسِ جاِن اَدُرُ فِلِبْ بَاتَلمَىٰ مَسُ تَمَسْ جِيمس صَدِيَس سَيمَن جُودَس مُثسَيَسْ سِنْبَال تمت Bita (Peter), jims (James), jan (John), aduru (Andrew), filib (Philip), batalma mas (Bartholomeus), tamas (Thomas), jims (James), ṣadiyas (Thaddeus), sayman (Simon), judas (Judas), muthsayas (Mattheus) sinbal (?). Completed. Through these transliterated names, one can perceive the echo of Diallo’s spoken articulation of English, and picture him receiving the dictation of his hosts in order to show them the workings of Arabic script. It goes without saying that such content is unusual in a Qur’an, even for a personal copy. Equally uncommon are the two verses which he added on the next page (f. 5v) as an incipit to the main text: “So woe to those who write the Book with their hands, then say, ‘This is from God,’ that they may sell it for a little price; so woe to them for what their hands have written, and woe to them for their earnings” (Q. 2:79) “Who does greater evil than he who forges against God a lie?” (repeated four times in the Qur’an). The ills of forging Scripture are thus emphasised, though the underlying intent remains unclear. The Qur’anic text then unfolds until f. 226r where, after the last sura (f. 225v), the manuscript concludes with a devotional prayer (duʿaʾ). A sentence already seen on the first page (f. 4r) is repeated at this point: اسمه تكتب القرءان الله ايوب بن سليمن جل His name: she writes the Qur’an, God, Ayyub ibn Sulayman jalla (?). This shows that the phrasing was intentional, if incorrect from the viewpoint of Arabic grammar. There follows (ff. 226r-227v) a list of all suras in the Qur’an with their place of revelation (Mecca or Madina) and their verse count, with this fully vocalised note in one margin (f. 227r): عَاتِ مُحَمَدِ وَن تَوْجٌ وَن حُدُرْدُ تَرْتِ فَيْفَ يَه مِائةَ وَالْفٌ وَخَمْسَ وَثَلاثوُنَ سِنِينَ عَاتِ عِيسَىِٰ وَن تَوْجٌ سِم حُدُرْدُ تَرْتِ تِرِىْ يَهْ اَلْفُ سَبْعَ مِائةَ ثَلَاثَ وَثَلاثوُنَ سِنِينَ ʿAti of Muhammad, 1135 years (wan tawjun wan ḥudurd tarti fayf yah), 1135 years [in Arabic] ʿAti of ʿIsa (Jesus), 1733 years (wan tawjun sim ḥudurd tarti tri yah), 1733 years [in Arabic]. This note thus gives the current year in the era (the apparent meaning of the unidentified word ʿati) “of Muhammad” (1135) and “of Jesus” (1733). Both dates are successively transliterated from English and given in Arabic: like the names of the apostles at the outset (f. 5r), they appear to form a record of Diallo’s interaction with his hosts. Finally, on the last page (f. 227v), Diallo wrote a colophon which can only be partly understood with knowledge of Arabic alone (as elsewhere, Diallo fully vocalised his transliterations of English words): اسمه ايوب بن سليمن تكتب كتٰب القرءان الله اسمه بلاد اغلل لندل اسمه الشحر عاكس اربع وعشر الشحر يوم الخميس تمت كتٰب عَاتِ عَادَمَ دِيسْتَمْبِر نَوْاَ فَيْفَ تَوْجٌ سِمْ حُنْدُرْدُ تَرْتِ تِرِىْ خَمْسَ اَلْفٌ سَبَعْ مِائةَ ثَلَاثَ وَثَلاثوُنَ سِنِينَ His name: Ayyub ibn Sulayman, she writes the book of the Qur’an, God. Its name: the country of Aghlal Lindal (England London?). His name: the month (shaḥr) of ʿakis, fourteen of the month, on Thursday. The book was completed in the era of Adam (ʿati ʿadam), December nine (?) (distambir nawa), 5733 (fayf tawjun sim ḥundurd tarti tri), 5733 [in Arabic]. This final colophon gives the date in a different calendar, that of Adam (spelled ʿAdam by Diallo). This corresponds closely to estimates current in the British Isles at the time for the creation of Man: 4004 BC according to James Ussher (1581-1656), and around 4000 BC according to Isaac Newton (1643-1727). The dates given here would thus both correspond to 1733. On this page, England – for that is probably what it is – is spelled “Aghlal” instead of “Aqlal” at the beginning (f. 4r), and first month name is written ʿakis instead of ʿakith. One might venture to read the latter word as a transliteration of the English “August,” but this seems contradicted by the probable occurrence of “December” in the next sentence. The month of completion thus remains uncertain. Taken as a whole, Diallo’s historical texts show only the most basic ability to compose in Arabic, which stands in sharp contrast with his knowledge of the Qur’an itself. For he wrote down 441 pages of the quintessential classical Arabic text from memory, and with relatively few errors, although these do occur – for instance, mistaking qaf for hamza, or sin for ṣad, which is easily done by any non-native speaker. It is also clear, from his transliterations of English, that he pronounced the letter ḥaʾ as haʾ. This does not miminise his accomplishment for a language in which he was not fluent; he even vocalised the first eighteen pages of text in red ink (up until f. 14r). Diallo, in sum, appears to have had, in addition to his astounding memory, reading knowledge of Arabic, but limited writing skills in this language. Palaeography and Paper At the level of palaeography, the manuscript is a valuable dated specimen of a Fulani bookhand from Bundu in the eighteenth century. A comparison with a Qur’an from the same broad region copied a century or so later reveals interesting parallels. First, Ayuba Suleiman Diallo was probably not a professional copyist, but rather a reciter of the Qur’an; trained scribes from this region, like their counterparts in the rest of West Africa, produced more assured styles. Nevertheless, Diallo’s handwriting shows many affinities with the present calligraphic style, and is based on the same ideal letter shapes, but executed with less competence. The contrast is probably exacerbated by the fact that Diallo must have used a quill in England, rather than the traditional pen for Arabic, typically made from a reed, which allowed for more contrast between thick and thin strokes. Figure. Page from a Qur’an manuscript produced in the Futa Tooro region, between modern Senegal and Mali, 19th century (35.3 x 22.3 cm). After Hamès, “Les écritures coraniques en Afrique musulmane,” 51. The manuscript was written on several types of unpolished white laid paper. Most leaves are thick, with red marginal rulings and no watermarks, but many of them, while similar in consistence, are unruled and bear a range of watermarks with coats-of-arms; there are also a few thinner unruled leaves without watermarks. Both the thick and thin unruled types become more common towards the end of the volume (after f. 197). The paper with red rulings was utilitarian in purpose, and a few leaves at the centre of the book (ff. 116-121) have a thumb index, with English capital letters handwritten in black and red ink. These pages were originally used for bookkeeping, with names and sums received or due in the upper margin. The persons listed include one William Hunt (f. 120v), which is also the name of the ship owner from whom Oglethorpe purchased Diallo (see above), although the sum in that entry is the smallest in the book: “1” (the entry below, for instance, “Elinor Harrison,” has “10”). The name is so common as to make it difficult to assess whether they may have been one and the same person; future research may shed more light on this issue by identifying more of those listed on these pages. Each column had only received up to three entries when it was handed over to Diallo, leaving most of the page area free for his writing, and the other leaves that would make up this Qur’an must likewise have been gathered in an improvised manner. Eighteenth-Century Additions to the Manuscript Some time in the eighteenth century, three folios with English handwritten texts and a note in Latin were inserted at the beginning of the manuscript (ff. 1-3). Each of these is in a different paper, which is also distinct from that of the Arabic text. The short biography of Diallo (f. 1) was bound in reverse order, which shows that these folios were meant to be read in the sequence of a European book. They contain six different bookhands. Their contents run as follows: Folio 3v A printed portrait of Diallo taken from a copy of Bluett’s book, where it featured on the opening page. The handwritten mention “Job son of Soliman Dgiallo High Priest of Bonda in the Country of Foota, Africa” has been added in English cursive calligraphy across the corners [hand 1]. Folio 3r A note signed by “Wm Smith”: “This Job when in London used to visit almost weekly at the House of Mr Joseph Smith my great-uncle, who then lived in Cannon Street in the City - anno 1733” [hand 2]. Folio 2v A blank page on which was pasted the following text in English cursive calligraphy: “Job son of Solliman Dgiallo High Priest of Bonda in the Country of Foota, Africa” [hand 3]. This was cut and pasted from the portrait page of Bluett’s book used for f. 3, where it originally featured below the image. Folio 2r a. Two words scribbled in Arabic b. A note in Latin – see transcription below [hand 4]. c. The signature “Saml Chandler.” By comparison with the Latin text, the ink hue is lighter, the stroke width is thicker, and the letter forms differ: this is probably a later addition [hand 5]. d. A second note signed by “Wm Smith”: “This note is in the hand writing of Dr. Samuel Chandler, a dissenting Minister of that time, whose character and writings are well-known” [hand 2]. Folio 1 r-v Diallo’s abbreviated story – see transcription below [hand 6] The portrait (f. 3v) is an etching based on a painting made by William Hoare of Bath (1707-92) in 1733, the year the present manuscript was produced. This oil painting on canvas, now in Doha (Qatar), follows the conventions of eighteenth-century British nobility portraits, but shows the subject in African dress. The Qur’an worn on his chest looks smaller than the present copy, which is unlikely to have been its model (especially since Diallo probably completed RNQ 1506 in December of that year, leaving very little time for overlap). These pages also show that, two generations after it was made, the manuscript had come into the possession of William Smith (1756-1835), an influential English Member of Parliament and Dissenter. William Smith is a common English name, but the identification is confirmed by an ex-libris on the inner cover that reads: “Dr & Madame Bodichon 5, Blanford Square, N.W.” Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon (1827-91), who married Dr Eugène Bodichon in 1857, was the granddaughter of William Smith, and a leading feminist and social activist of the Victoria era, and a painter. She used to winter in Algiers, and thus happened to have fostered connections of her own with the Arab world. Furthermore, William Smith’s own father had been a wholesale grocer on Cannon Street, in London, which is associated here (f. 3r) with “Mr Joseph Smith my great-uncle.” Thus it was William Smith who wrote two of the above notes (hand 2); it is likely that he also added these three pages to the book, and had it set in its present gilt morocco binding, with gilt page-edges. Smith had probably come to know about Diallo not only through Bluett’s book, but also through family memories. As Smith was a key figure in the Abolitionist movement, the present volume stands as a testimony to the role played by Diallo’s story, after his death, in garnering support against slavery. Latin text (f. 2r) Hunc dedit Korannum Jobus sacerdos mohammedicus sua manu scriptum, ex fideli et tenaci memoria, filius Ibra-himi archisacerdotis mohammedici apud Mauros, juxta fluvium Senagal, in Regno Tombut. Vir certe, si quis alius, pius et probus, neque a fide christiana alienus “This Qur’an was written by Job, the Muhammadan priest, in his own hand from faithful and lasting memory. He was the son of Ibrahim, the Muhammadan arch priest among the Moors, along the Senegal River, in the kingdom of Tombut. He was certainly a most pious and upright man, in step with the Christian faith.” Handwritten Account of Diallo’s Life (f. 1r-v) “Job ben Solomon ben Ibrahim was Imam to his Father who was high Priest of Bûnda a Town in the Kingdom of Footah of which his grandfather Ibrahim had been both founder & Legislator, & it is remarkable that among his Laws there is one declaring that no Person who should flee thither for refuge should ever be made a Slave. The Father of Job however having two slaves to dispose of sent his Son with them to an English Ship which had just gone up the Gambia; but the Captain not agreeing to his terms, Job crossed the Gambia and sold the Slaves in the Mandingo Country, where on his return he was seized by a marauding Party, bound and carried off, and sold to Captain Pyke of the Ship already mentioned. The Captn, knowing Job, wd. have allowed him to redeem himself; but, the distance from his Father to whom he wrote for the means not admitting of the messenger’s return in less than a fortnight, the Captain who sailed in less than a week carried him to Maryland, where he was sold to a Mr Tolsey who employed him in making Tobacco & taking care of his father. Miserable under these circumstances & the perpetual Interruption of his devotions He at length resolved on flight: & accordingly in 1731 escaped to Pennsylvania, where he was taken up, & thrown into Prison till reclaimed by Mr Tolsey, who now enquiring into the History of his Slave took him home & treated him with greater kindness than before. Job wrote now a letter to his Father, in Arabic, acquainting him with his situation, but there being no direct conveyance at that time to Africa it was sent round by England, where lying for a while in the Hands of a Mr Hunt it was seen by General Oglethorpe, who immediately so interested himself in his behalf that he induced Mr Hunt to send for him to England securing by Bond to that gentleman a Sum of Money on his arrival here. Mr Hunt accordingly ordered Job to be bought for him, & in 1733 imported him into England in the Character of his Slave, from which however he was soon redeemed by a Subscription & the African Company paying all charges on his account cancelled the Bond which had been given by Genl Oglethorpe to Mr Hunt, and gave Job his Freedom engrossed in Form under their own Seal. Many Persons of Consequence afforded him their Patronage here, the Duke of Montagu in particular; & he was presented to the King & Queen by Mr Hans Sloane who employed him frequently in translating Arabic mss and inscriptions. In 1734 the African Company accomodated him with a Passage in one of their ships bound for the Gambia & he left England furnished with all Instruments of husbandry, & various tools the use of which had made a principal Part of his Studies here. His Father had died in his absence, & one of his Wives had married again, he deeply lamented the former Event & the latter he forgave, he also expressed concern when on his return he found that the King of his Country, whose favor he had enjoyed before, had invaded the Mandingoes & taken a great revenge for his Captivity. His Gratitude was to be seen in his letters sent back to his benefactors here & the language of affection in which he speaks of the English nation. Tho’ a scrupulous mahometan he had a tolerant Spirit & was rather friendly to Christianity. His docility appeared in his ready attainment of our language & the use of our tools, & his memory from the very mss to which this account is annexed, for it is one of three which he wrote entirely from his unassisted recollection.” "
Courtesy of:
Lama koubrously <[[1]]>
Date: Mon, Jul 31, 2023 at 2:47 AM
Subject: Re: Fwd: [EXTERNAL EMAIL] Fwd: Job Ben Solomon (Ayuba Sulayman Dialllo)'s Qur'an
To: Edward Papenfuse <[[2]]>